tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-33521811728277387622024-03-12T19:40:59.564-07:00Accurate Information Researchs , Reports and Articles abdallah alserhyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08911916150363744452noreply@blogger.comBlogger7125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3352181172827738762.post-4403382485267884552015-12-24T02:20:00.002-08:002015-12-24T02:43:48.193-08:00Global Positioning System (GPS) " Research "<div dir="rtl" style="text-align: right;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">1- Introduction</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">:<o:p></o:p></span></span></h3>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">With development
of science and technology, GPS measuring technique also makes some progress
nowadays and plays an increasingly important role in practice of engineering
surveying.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Although GPS
measuring technique has many advantages, such as high technical content, high measurement
accuracy and short measuring time, it still has some problems in practical
application, which we need pay attention to. This thesis simply analyzes
composition, technical advantages and application of GPS measuring technique,
focuses on studying problems of GPS in engineering practice and proposes
solutions via exploration.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">GPS just refers
to global positioning system, which belongs to radio navigation positioning
system in essence. It is jointly composed of global communication satellite and
signal reception devices and can provide accurate navigation, time information
and three-dimensional coordinate for users.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="font-size: large;">As the latest
satellite positioning navigation system, GPS can not only realize all-weather,
global and uninterrupted three-dimensional navigation positioning function but
also have strong confidentiality and anti-interference performance. As global
digitization process accelerates, GPS technique develops rapidly, is widely
applied to engineering surveying and plays an important role.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">2- Composition of GPS system:</span></b></h3>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Global
positioning system (GPS) mainly contains two sub-systems, i.e., ground
monitoring system and space satellite group system. According to hardware
facilities, it also contains satellite receiving equipment. The space satellite
group includes 24 satellites in all and all satellites are averagely
distributed to 6 orbits surrounding the earth, whose distance to the ground is
0.2 million kilometers. On such orbits, operational cycle of satellites is 11
hours and 58 minutes. In this way, any site on the earth can receive GPS
signals sent by 4 satellites at least and 11 satellites at most<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">simultaneously
anytime. Devices contained by GPS user terminal part involve receiver, data
processing equipment, corresponding user equipment, meteorological</span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">instrument and computer etc.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;">3- Advantage of GPS surveys :</span></b></h3>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">• Three Dimensional .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">• Site visibility Not Needed .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">• Weather Independent .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">• Day or Night Operation .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">• Common Reference System .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">• Rapid Data Processing with Quality Control .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">• High Precision .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">• Less Labor Intensive(Cost Effective) .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">• Very Few Skilled Personnel Needed .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">• GPS eliminates
the need for establishing control before a survey .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">•GPS can
establish control as and when needed and establish points at strategic
locations to start and close conventional traverses. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">•All or any of
the following values could be available directly in the field or after
post-processing the data <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">- Latitude, longitude, geodetic height and X, Y, Z
Cartesian coordinates.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">- State Plane or Project coordinates .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">- Forward and back geodetic azimuth of the baseline .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">- Geodetic
distance or Monument to Monument slope distance of baselines .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">- Vertical angle from point to point .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">•GPS determines
the geodetic azimuth between two points directly thereby eliminating the need
for converting an astronomic azimuth to geodetic azimuth by applying Laplace
correction .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">•State plane
coordinates can be directly computed from the latitudes and longitudes obtained
from GPS. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">•The slope
distances can be reduced to the ellipsoid very accurately as ellipsoidal height
is known .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="font-size: large;">Note, however
that, even though the baseline components such as distances and azimuths are
accurate, the accuracy of coordinates of new points are dependent on the
quality of known points included in the survey.</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16pt;">4- Methods of GPS Surveys :</span></b></h3>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">-Static GPS Surveys :</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Static GPS
survey procedures allow various systematic errors to be resolved when
high-accuracy positioning is required. Static procedures are used to produce
baselines between stationary GPS units by recording data over an extended
period of time during which the satellite geometry changes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">-Fast-static GPS Surveys :</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Fast-static GPS
surveys are similar to static GPS surveys, but with shorter observation periods
(approximately 5 to 10 minutes). Fast-static GPS survey procedures require more
advanced equipment and data reduction techniques than static GPS methods.
Typically, the fast-static GPS method should not be used for corridor control
or other surveys requiring horizontal accuracy greater than first order.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">-Kinematic GPS Surveys :</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Kinematic GPS
surveys make use of two or more GPS units. At least one GPS unit is set up over
a known (reference) station and remains stationary, while other (rover) GPS
units are moved from station to station. All baselines are produced from the
GPS unit occupying a reference station to the rover units. Kinematic GPS
surveys can be either continuous or “stop and go”. Stop and go station
observation periods are of short duration, typically under two minutes.
Kinematic GPS surveys are employed where third-order or lower accuracy
standards are applicable.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">-OPUS GPS Surveys :</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">The NGS On-line
Positioning User Service (OPUS) allows users to submit individual GPS unit data
files directly to NGS for automatic processing. Each data file that is
submitted is processed with respect to 3 CORS sites. OPUS solutions shall not
be used for producing final coordinates or elevations on any Caltrans survey;
however OPUS solutions may be used as a verification of other procedures.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">5 - Equipment :</span></b></h3>
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<span style="color: windowtext; font-size: large;">Post processed GPS surveying equipment generally
consists of two major components: the receiver and the antenna.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">-Receiver Requirements:</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">First-order, second-order,
and third-order post processed GPS surveys require GPS receivers that are
capable of recording data. When performing specific types of GPS surveys (i.e.
static, fast-static, and kinematic), receivers and software shall be suitable
for the specific survey as specified by the manufacturer. Dual frequency
receivers shall be used for observing baselines over 9 miles in length. During
periods of intense solar activity, dual frequency receivers shall be used for
observing baselines over 6 miles in length.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">-Antennas :</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">Whenever
feasible, all antennas used for a project should be identical. For vertical
control surveys, identical antennas shall be used unless software is available
to accommodate the use of different antennas. For first-order and second-order
horizontal surveys, antennas with a ground plane attached shall be used, and
the antennas shall be mounted on a tripod or a stable supporting tower. When
tripods or towers are used, optical plummets or collimators are required to
ensure accurate centering over marks. Fixed height tripods are required for
third-order or better vertical surveys. The use of range poles and/or stake-out
poles to support GPS antennas should only be employed for third-order
horizontal and general-order surveys.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">-Miscellaneous Equipment
Requirements<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: large;">All equipment
must be properly maintained and regularly checked for accuracy. Errors due to
poorly maintained equipment must be eliminated to ensure valid survey results.
Level vials, optical plummets, and collimators shall be calibrated at the
beginning and end of each GPS survey. If the duration of the survey exceeds a
week, these calibrations shall be repeated weekly for the duration of the
survey. For details regarding equipment repair, adjustment, and maintenance.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">6- General Post Processed
GPS Survey Specifications:</span></b></h3>
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<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">-</span><span style="font-size: large;">Network Design</span></b></div>
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<b style="font-size: x-large;">Baselines (Vectors)</b></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Baselines are developed by processing data
collected simultaneously by GPS units at each end of a line. For each
observation session, there is one less independent (non-trivial) baseline than
the number of receivers collecting data simultaneously during the session.
Notice in Figure 6A-1 that three receivers placed on stations 1, 2, and 3 for
Session “A” Baselines are developed by processing data collected simultaneously
by GPS units at each end of a line. For each observation session, there is one
less independent (non-trivial) baseline than the number of receivers collecting
data simultaneously during the session. Notice in Figure 6A-1 that three receivers
placed on stations 1, 2, and 3 for Session “A” yield two independent baselines
and one dependent (trivial) baseline. Magnitude (distance) and direction for
dependent baselines are obtained by separate processing, but use the same data
used to compute the independent baselines. Therefore, the errors are
correlated. Dependent baselines shall not be used to compute or adjust the
position of stations.</span><b><span style="font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">-Loops :</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span dir="LTR" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">A loop is defined as a series of at least three independent,
connecting baselines, which start and end at the same station. Each loop shall
have at least one baseline in common with another loop. Each loop shall contain
baselines collected from a minimum of </span></span><br />
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sessions.</span><span lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b><br /></b></span>
<span style="font-size: large;"><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR"></span><b><span dir="LTR"></span><span dir="LTR"></span>-Networks:</b></span></div>
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<span dir="LTR" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;">Networks shall only contain
closed loops. Each station in a network shall be connected with at least two
different independent baselines. Avoid connecting stations to a network by
multiple baselines to only one other network station. First-order and
second-order GPS control networks shall consist of a series of interconnecting
closed-loop, geometric figures.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: large;">-Redundancy:</span></b></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large;">First-order, second-order, and third-order
GPS control networks shall be designed with sufficient redundancy to detect and
isolate blunders and/or systematic errors. Redundancy of network design is
achieved by: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: .7pt;">
<span style="font-size: large;">•
Connecting each network station with at least two independent baselines <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: .7pt;">
<span style="font-size: large;">•
Series of interconnecting, closed loops <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large;">• Repeat baseline measurements</span></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"><br /></span></div>
<h3>
<b><span style="font-size: large;">7- Satellite Geometry:</span></b></h3>
<h3>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: normal;">Satellite geometry factors to
consider when planning a GPS survey are: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: .7pt;">
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: normal;">•
Number of satellites available <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: .7pt;">
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: normal;">•
Minimum elevation angle for satellites (elevation mask) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: .7pt;">
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: normal;">•
Obstructions limiting satellite visibility <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: .7pt;">
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: normal;">•
Positional Dilution of Precision (PDOP) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: normal;">• Vertical Dilution of
Precision (VDOP) when performing vertical GPS surveys </span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large; font-weight: normal;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<br /></div>
</h3>
<h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> <o:p></o:p><b>8- Field Procedures:</b></span></h3>
<div>
<span style="font-size: large;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: large;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<b><span style="font-size: large;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</div>
<div>
<div class="Default">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">-</span><span style="font-size: large;">Reconnaissance </span></b><span style="font-size: large;">:</span></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large;">Proper field reconnaissance is essential to
the execution of efficient, effective GPS surveys. Reconnaissance should
include: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 0.7pt;">
<span style="font-size: large;">• Station setting or
recovery <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 0.7pt;">
<span style="font-size: large;">• Checks for
obstructions and multipath potential <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 0.7pt;">
<span style="font-size: large;">• Preparation of
station descriptions (monument description, to-reach descriptions, etc.) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large;">• Development of a realistic observation
schedule <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<b><span style="font-size: large;">-Station Site Selection :</span></b></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large;">The most important factor for determining
GPS station location is the project’s requirements (needs). After project
requirements, consideration must be given to the following limitations of GPS: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 0.7pt;">
<span style="font-size: large;">• Stations should be
situated in locations, which are relatively free from horizon obstructions. In
general, a clear view of the sky is required. Satellite signals do not
penetrate metal, buildings, or trees and are susceptible to signal delay errors
when passing through leaves, glass, plastic and other materials. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large;">• Locations near strong radio transmissions
should be avoided because radio frequency transmitters, including cellular
phone equipment, may disturb satellite signal reception. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large;">Avoid locating stations near large flat
surfaces such as buildings, large signs, fences, etc., as satellite signals may
be reflected off these surfaces causing multipath errors. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large;">With proper planning, some obstructions near
a GPS station may be acceptable. For example, station occupation times may be
extended to compensate for obstructions.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<b><span style="font-size: large;">-Weather Conditions:</span></b></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large;">Generally, weather conditions do not affect
GPS survey procedures with the following exceptions: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 0.7pt;">
<span style="font-size: large;">• GPS observations
should never be conducted during electrical storms. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large;">• Significant changes in weather or unusual
weather conditions should be noted in the observation log (field notes).
Horizontal GPS surveys should generally be avoided during periods of
significant weather changes. Vertical GPS surveys should not be attempted
during these periods. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;">With
proper planning, some obstructions near a GPS station may be acceptable. For
example, station occupation times may be extended to compensate for obstructions.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;">-Antenna Height Measurements </span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;">:</span></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large;">Blunders in antenna height measurements are
a common source of error in GPS surveys because all GPS surveys are
three-dimensional whether the vertical component will be used or not. Antenna
height measurements determine the height from the survey monument mark to the
phase center of the GPS antenna. With the exception of fixed-height tripods and
permanently mounted GPS antennas, independent antenna heights shall be measured
in both feet and meters (use conversion between feet and meters as a check) at
the beginning and end of each observation session. A height hook or slant rod
shall be used to make these measurements. All antenna height measurements shall
be recorded on the observation log sheet and entered in the receiver data file.
Antenna height measurements in both feet and meters shall check to within ±
0.01 feet. When a station is occupied during two or more observation sessions
back to back, the antenna/tripod shall be broken down, reset, and re-plumbed
between sessions. When adjustable antenna staffs are used (e.g., kinematic
surveys), they should be adjusted so that the body of the person holding the
staff does not act as an obstruction. The antenna height for staffs in extended
positions shall be checked continually throughout each day.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large;">When fixed-height tripods are used, verify
the height of the tripod and components (antenna) at the beginning of the
project.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<b><span style="font-size: large;">-Documentation :</span></b></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large;">The final GPS Survey project file should
include the following information: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 0.7pt;">
<span style="font-size: large;">• Project report <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 0.7pt;">
<span style="font-size: large;">• Project sketch or map
showing independent baselines used to create the network <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 0.7pt;">
<span style="font-size: large;">• Station descriptions <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 0.7pt;">
<span style="font-size: large;">• Station obstruction
diagrams <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 0.7pt;">
<span style="font-size: large;">• Observation logs <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 0.7pt;">
<span style="font-size: large;">• Raw GPS observation
(tracking) data files <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large;">• Baseline processing results <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.7pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Symbol;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;">Loop
closures <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.7pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;">• Repeat baseline
analysis <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.7pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;">• Least squares
unconstrained adjustment results <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.7pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;">• Least squares
constrained adjustment results <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;">•
Final coordinate list</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 11.5pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 11.5pt;"><br /></span></div>
<h3 style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>9- Office Procedures:</b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></h3>
</div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div>
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
<div>
<div class="Default">
<b><span style="font-size: large;">-General :</span></b></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large;">For first-order, second-order, and some
third-order Post-Processed GPS surveys, raw GPS observation (tracking) data
shall be collected and post processed for results and analysis. Post processing
and analysis are required for first-order and second-order GPS surveys. The
primary post-processed results that are analyzed are: <b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 0.7pt;">
<span style="font-size: large;">• Baseline processing
results <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 0.7pt;">
<span style="font-size: large;">• Loop closures <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="margin-bottom: 0.7pt;">
<span style="font-size: large;">• Repeat baseline
differences <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large;">• Results from least-squares network
adjustments <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large;">Post-processing software shall be capable of
producing relative-position coordinates and corresponding statistics which can
be used in a three-dimensional least squares network adjustment. This software
shall also allow analysis of loop closures and repeat baseline observations.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<b><span style="font-size: large;">-Loop Closure and Repeat
Baseline Analysis:</span></b></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large;">Loop closures and differences in repeat
baselines are computed to check for blunders and to obtain initial estimates of
the internal consistency of the GPS network. Tabulate and include loop closures
and differences in repeat baselines in the project documentation. Failure of a
baseline in a loop closure does not automatically mean that the baseline in
question should be rejected but is an indication that a portion of the network
requires additional analysis. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>-Least Squares Network
Adjustment </b>:</span></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: large;">An unconstrained (free) adjustment is
performed, after blunders are removed from the network, to verify the baselines
of the network. After a satisfactory standard deviation of unit weight (network
reference factor) is achieved using realistic <i>a priori </i>error estimates,
a constrained adjustment is performed. The constrained network adjustment fixes
the coordinates of the known reference stations, thereby adjusting the<b> </b>network to
the datum and epoch of the reference stations. A consistent control reference
network (datum) and epoch shall be used for the constrained adjustment. The NGS
Horizontal Time Dependent Positioning (HTDP) program may be used to translate
geodetic positions from one epoch to another.</span></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"><br /></span></div>
<h3>
<b><span style="font-size: large;">10-Applications of GPS :</span></b></h3>
<h3>
<span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"><br /></span></h3>
<h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; direction: ltr; line-height: 15pt; margin: 12pt 0cm 6pt; text-align: left; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;">1-Civilian Applications of GPS :<o:p></o:p></span></h2>
<div>
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt;"><br /></span></div>
<h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; direction: ltr; line-height: 13.5pt; margin-top: 0cm; unicode-bidi: embed; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">1. Road Transport</span></h3>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 6pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><b style="background-color: white;">2. Aviation</b></span></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 6pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><b style="background-color: white;">3. Shipping & Rail Transport</b></span></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 6pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><b style="background-color: white;">4. Science</b></span></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 6pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 15pt; text-align: left;"><b style="background-color: white;">5. Security</b></span></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 6pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 15pt; text-align: left;"><b style="background-color: white;">6. Heavy Vehicle Guidance</b></span></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 6pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 15pt; text-align: left;"><b style="background-color: white;">7. Surveying, Mapping and Geophysics</b></span></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 6pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 15pt; text-align: left;"><b style="background-color: white;">8. Telecommunications</b></span></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 15pt; text-align: left;"><b style="background-color: white;">9. Financial Services</b></span></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial; background-repeat: initial; background-size: initial; line-height: 13.5pt; margin: 0cm 0cm 6pt; vertical-align: baseline;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 15pt; text-align: left;"><b style="background-color: white;">10. Social Activities</b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;">2- Military Applications :<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: large;">
Aircraft navigation systems usually display a "moving map" and are
often connected to the autopilot for en-route navigation. Cockpit-mounted GPS
receivers and glass cockpits are appearing in general aviation aircraft of all
sizes, using technology such as WAAS or LAAS to increase accuracy. Many of
these systems may be certified for instrument flight rules navigation and some
can also be used for final approach and landing operations. Glider pilots use
GNSS Flight Recorders to log GPS data verifying their arrival at turn points in
gliding competitions. Flight computers installed in many gliders also use GPS
to compute wind speed aloft, glide paths to way points such as alternate
airports or mountain passes, and to aid en route decision making for
cross-country-soaring.<br />
<br />
Boats and ships can use GPS to navigate all of the world's lakes, seas and
oceans. Maritime GPS units include functions useful on water, such as "man
overboard" (MOB) functions that allow instantly marking the location where
a person has fallen overboard, which simplifies rescue efforts. GPS may be
connected to the ships self-steering gear and Chart plotters using the NMEA
0183 interface. GPS can also improve the security of shipping traffic by
enabling AIS.<br />
<br />
Heavy Equipment can use GPS in construction, mining, and precision agriculture.
The blades and buckets of construction equipment are controlled automatically
in GPS-based machine guidance systems. Agricultural equipment may use GPS to
steer automatically or as a visual aid displayed on a screen for the driver.
This is very useful for controlled traffic, row crop operations, and when
spraying. Harvesters with yield monitors can also use GPS to create a yield map
of the paddock being harvested.<br />
<br />
Bicyclists often use GPS in racing and touring. GPS navigation allows cyclists
to plot their course in advance and follow this course, which may include
quieter, narrower streets, without having to stop frequently to refer to
separate maps. Some GPS receivers are specifically adapted for cycling with
special mounts and housings.<br />
</span></span><br />
<h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-weight: normal; line-height: 115%;">Hikers, climbers, and even ordinary pedestrians in urban or rural environments
can use GPS to determine their position with or without reference to separate
maps. In isolated areas, the ability of GPS to provide a precise position can
greatly enhance the chances of rescue when climbers or hikers are disabled or
lost (if they have a means of communication with rescue workers)</span><span style="font-weight: normal;"> .</span><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
</div>
<div>
<span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"><span style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></span></span></div>
<div>
<h3 style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16pt;">11- </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">References</span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16pt;"> :<o:p></o:p></span></b></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div align="right" class="MsoNormal" dir="RTL" style="text-align: left;">
<b><span dir="LTR" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 115%;">1)</span></b><i><span dir="LTR" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> California Department of Transportation </span></i><span dir="LTR" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> CALTRANS SURVEYS MANUAL</span><span lang="AR-SA" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" dir="LTR" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: left; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt;">2)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Wu Yingjie. Experience about GPS in
engineering surveying [J]. Municipal Engineering of China, 2005(2).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt;">3)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Li Jun. GPS measuring technique and
its application to engineering surveying [J]. Journal of Qiqihaer Vocational
College, 2012(5).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt;">4)</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> Ma Jie. Discussion on improvement
in accuracy and reliability of GPS RTK landmarks [J]. Zhongzhou Coal, 2006(2).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt;">5) </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-themecolor: text1;"><a href="http://www.fleetistics.com/gps-satellite-applications.php">http://www.fleetistics.com/gps-satellite-applications.php</a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt;">6) </span><a href="http://www.gps.gov/applications/"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-themecolor: text1;">http://www.gps.gov/applications/</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt;">7) </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_System"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-themecolor: text1;">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_System</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt;">8) </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-themecolor: text1;"><a href="https://www.google.ps/webhp?hl=ar">https://www.google.ps/webhp?hl=ar</a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 14pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span><br />
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abdallah alserhyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08911916150363744452noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3352181172827738762.post-57384922184882520572015-12-23T07:22:00.000-08:002015-12-23T22:08:09.889-08:00A geothermal Power Plant " Research "<div dir="rtl" style="text-align: right;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: small; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">1. Introduction<o:p></o:p></span></b><br />
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: small; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Geothermal
energy " the heat of the Earth " is a clean, renewable resource that
provides energy in the world.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The U.S. has
been </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">using commercial, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">large-scale geothermal power plants at deep
resource temperatures (between 200 ̊F and 700 ̊F) since the </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">1960s. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Geothermal energy development and production is
a thriving international market. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: small; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">2. What
is geothermal energy?</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Heat has been radiating from the center</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">of the Earth for some 4.5 billion years. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">At 6437.4 km
(4,000miles) deep,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">the center of
the Earth hovers around the same temperatures as the sun's surface, 9932°F or (5,500°C)
see(Figure 1).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-s51DEQ0SLVA/Vnq8-dEI3NI/AAAAAAAAADU/80ofEBjLV5s/s1600/11111111.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-s51DEQ0SLVA/Vnq8-dEI3NI/AAAAAAAAADU/80ofEBjLV5s/s1600/11111111.png" /></a></td></tr>
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<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> (
Figure .1 ) : temperature in the earth</span></i><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> ,
source (GEA)</span></i><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"></span></div>
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<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Scientists estimate that 42 million megawatts</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> (MW) of power
flow from the Earth’s interior,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">primarily by
conduction Geothermal energy is a renewable resource (</span><i><span style="font-family: "Arabic Typesetting"; line-height: 115%;">The
National Energy Policy Act of , 1992</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">).</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">One of its
biggest advantages is that it is constantly available.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The
constant flow of heat from the Earth ensures an inexhaustible </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">and essentially limitless supply of energy for billions of years to
come (</span><i><span style="font-family: "Arabic Typesetting"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">the Pacific
Northwest Electric Power Planning and Conservation Act of , 1980</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">) .<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The uses of geothermal for heat and other purposes</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> were
indigenous practices </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">across a
variety of world cultures: " The Maoris in New Zealand and Native
Americans used water from hot springs </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">for cooking and medicinal purposes for
thousands of years.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> The people of</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Pompeii, living too close to Mount Vesuvius, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">tapped hot
water from the earth to heat their buildings. Romans used geothermal waters for
treating eye and skin disease.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The Japanese
have enjoyed geothermal spas for centuries " ( </span><i><span style="font-family: "Arabic Typesetting"; line-height: 115%;">Nersesian
</span></i><i><span style="font-family: "Arabic Typesetting"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">page334</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">) .</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Rainwater
and snowmelt feed underground thermal aquifers. When hot water or steam is
trapped in cracks and pores under a layer of impermeable rock, it forms a
geothermal reservoir.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">A viable geothermal system requires heat, permeability, and water.
Developers explore a geothermal reservoir to test its potential for</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;"> development by
drilling and testing temperatures and flow rates.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;"> The
First Geothermal Plant </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">at the Larderello , Italy dry steam field,</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">Prince
Piero Ginori Conti first proved the viability of geothermal power plant
technology in 1904 .</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: small; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">3. What is a baseload power source?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">A baseload
power plant produces energy at a constant rate.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">addition to
geothermal, nuclear and coal-fired plants are also baseload.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Because
the energy is constant,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">its power
output can remain consistent nearly 24 hours a day,</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">giving
geothermal energy a higher capacity factor than solar or wind power, which must
wait for the sun to shine or the wind to blow, respectively.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">This
means a geothermal plant with a smaller capacity than a solar or wind plant can
provide more actual, delivered electricity.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">In geothermal
development, one megawatt is roughly equivalent to the electricity used by
1,000 homes. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">A geothermal
plant can also be engineered to be firm, flexible, or load following, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">and otherwise support the needs of the grid (</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> </span><i><span style="font-family: "Arabic Typesetting"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">GEA “ The Values"</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> ).</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">Most
geothermal plants being built now have adjustable dispatching capabilities. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">In addition to geothermal, natural gas is dispatchable.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> This means a
geothermal plant can meet fluctuating needs, such as those caused by the
intermittency of solar and wind power</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: small; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">4. How does a conventional geothermal power plant
work?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%; text-align: right;">After careful exploration and analysis, wells
are drilled to bring</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%; text-align: right;"> geothermal energy to the surface,</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%; text-align: right;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%; text-align: right;">where it is converted into electricity. (Figure:
2) in the next page shows the geothermal installed capacity in the U.S. from
1975 to 2012,separated by technology type. the (USGS) has defined
moderate-temperature resources as those between 90°C and 150°C (194 to 302°F),
and high-temperature geothermal systems as those greater than 150°C.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%; text-align: right;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%; text-align: right;">the three commercial types of conventional
geothermal power plants is : flash, dry steam, and binary.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><br /></span></div>
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-0FPHOk0M8_Y/Vnq9TD_BNMI/AAAAAAAAADc/CjJxPAaWhaw/s1600/22222222222.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="212" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-0FPHOk0M8_Y/Vnq9TD_BNMI/AAAAAAAAADc/CjJxPAaWhaw/s400/22222222222.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-right: -24.15pt; text-align: justify; text-justify: kashida; text-kashida: 0%; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">( Figure :2) :
Total U.S. Geothermal Installed Capacity by Technology(MW) 1975–2012.</span></i><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> source (GEA)</span></i><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">4.1 </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">A
geothermal flash power</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">plant</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">In a geothermal
flash power plant, high pressure separates steam from water in a “steam separator” (Figure 3) as the water
rises and as pressure drops.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The steam is
delivered to the turbine, and the turbine then powers a generator.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">The
liquid is re-injected into the reservoir. In U.S , Under one-third of the
installed geothermal capacity, is comprised of flash power plants, with the
majority in California (</span><i><span style="font-family: "Arabic Typesetting"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">GEA
“Annual” 2012, page 7</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><br /></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Nbh6CvH7KII/Vnq9gAaVjmI/AAAAAAAAADk/i0KWFEOJ1no/s1600/33333333333.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Nbh6CvH7KII/Vnq9gAaVjmI/AAAAAAAAADk/i0KWFEOJ1no/s1600/33333333333.png" /></a></td></tr>
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<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">(figure: 3) a geothermal flash power plant </span></i><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">source (GEA)</span></i></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">4.2</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
</span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">A geothermal dry steam power plant</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt; line-height: 115%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;">In a geothermal dry steam power plant, steam alone is produced</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;">directly
from the geothermal reservoir and is used to run the turbines that power the
generator (Figure 4). Because there is no water, the steam separator used in a
flash plant is not necessary. In U.S , the Dry-steam power plants account for
approximately 50% of installed geothermal capacity. and are located in
California.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-SbAzvb5oe0A/Vnq96M6r_QI/AAAAAAAAADs/hORHoDtf2b8/s1600/444444444444.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-SbAzvb5oe0A/Vnq96M6r_QI/AAAAAAAAADs/hORHoDtf2b8/s1600/444444444444.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
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<i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">(figure: 4) </span></i><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">A geothermal dry steam power plant , source (GEA)</span></i><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> 4.3 </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> A geothermal</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">binary</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> </span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">power
plant</span></b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">In 1981 at a project in Imperial Valley, California,
Ormat Technologies established the technical feasibility of the third
conventional type of large-scale commercial geothermal power plant: binary. The
project was so successful that Ormat repaid its loan to the Department of
Energy (DOE) within a year.7 Binary geothermal plants have made it possible to
produce electricity from geothermal resources lower than 302°F (150°C). This
has expanded the U.S. industry’s geographical footprint, especially in the last
decade.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">Binary plants use an Organic Rankine Cycle system,
which uses geothermal water to heat a second liquid that boils at a lower
temperature than water, such as isobutane or .This is called a working fluid
(Figure: 5). A heat exchanger separates the water from the working fluid while
transferring the heat energy. When the working fluid vaporizes, the force of
the expanding vapor, like steam, turns the turbines that power the generators.
The geothermal water is then reinjected in a closed loop.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">(figure: 5) </span></i><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">A geothermal</span></i><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></i><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">binary</span></i><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></i><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">power plant</span></i><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></i><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">, source (GEA)</span></i><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;">5. </span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: large;"> How do
geothermal heat pumps work?</span>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">Animals burrow underground for warmth in the winter and
to escape the heat of the summer. The same basic principle of constant,
moderate temperature in the subsurface is applied to geothermal heat pumps
(GHPs). GHPs utilize average ground temperatures between 40˚and 70˚F. In 1948,
a professor at Ohio State University developed the first GHP for use at his
residence. A groundwater heat pump came into commercial use in Oregon around
the same time.</span><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">GHP heating and cooling systems circulate water or
other liquids to pull heat from the Earth through pipes in a continuous loop
through a heat pump and conventional duct system. For cooling, the process is
reversed; the system extracts heat from the building and moves it back into the
Earth loop. The loop system can be used almost everywhere in the world at
depths below 10 ft to 300 ft. GHPs are used in all 50 states and are over 45%
more energy efficient than standard heating and cooling system options.</span><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">Homeowners who install qualified GHPs are eligible for
a 30% federal tax credit through December 31, 2016. They can be buried
conveniently on a property such as under a landscaped area, parking lot, or
pond, either horizontally or vertically (Figure 9). A GHP system can also direct
the heat to a water heater unit for hot water use.</span><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">(figure:6) geothermal heat pumps work</span></i><i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: small; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;">6. </span></b><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: large;"> Environmental Benefits</span>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-bidi;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 115%;">In an international community increasingly worried about worsening
effects of climate change, geothermal can play an important role in reducing
air emissions. Experts generally agree that effects of climate change pose
significant environmental dangers, including flood risks, drought, glacial
melting, forest fires, rising sea levels, loss of biodiversity, and potential
health dangers. and most geothermal plants being developed will produce nearly
zero air emissions. So, using geothermal helps to offset energy-related carbon
dioxide, which accounted for 82% of greenhouse gas (GHG).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large; line-height: 115%;">Using geothermal also eliminates the mining,
processing, and transporting required for electricity generation from fossil
fuel resources; and, it has among the smallest surface land footprint per
kilowatt (kW) of any power generation technology. Geothermal power plants are
designed and constructed to minimize the potential effects on wildlife and
vegetation in compliance with a host of state and federal regulations. A
thorough environmental review is required before construction of a generating
facility can begin. Subsequent monitoring and mitigation of any environmental
impacts continues throughout the life of the plant.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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abdallah alserhyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08911916150363744452noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3352181172827738762.post-37541496766949426882015-11-22T02:34:00.002-08:002015-11-22T02:37:00.450-08:00Sheet Pile Walls "article"<div dir="rtl" style="text-align: right;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-size: large;">Sheet piles are a temporary structures used to retain a soil or water for aspecific period of time, to build a structure in the other side of this wall.For example; if we want to build a structure with three basement floors (underground) and this structure surrounded by other structures, when the excavation process starts, if the soil under the surrounding structures doesn’t retained by a sheet pile, this soil will fail and will moves to the excavation site, and the structure above this soil may collapse suddenly, so before establishment of excavation process, sheet pile must be constructed to retain his soil and prevent it from fails and after completion of constructed the structure , we can remove this sheet pile because it’s function was end.Another example; if we wanna build a structure in the sea (waterfront structures)we can use sheet piles to retain sea water from flowing to the required area, and then withdraw the water confined between sheet piles and thereby build the required structures, finally remove sheet piles because there functions were end.The following figures are some explanation of the applications of sheet piles and the shape of sheet pile itself:</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">1. Sheet piles may be made from steel, concrete or wood.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">2. As seen in the above pictures, sheet piles must penetrates a specified distance in earth (from both sides) to be stable against applied lateral loads,this depth called depth of penetration, and the following figure explain the main parts of sheet piles:</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">The line at which the sheet pile starts penetrating in soil from both sides is known by dredge line, and the depth of penetration of sheet pile under this line is D: depth of penetration.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Designing of sheet piles mainly is to calculate the depth of penetration D and determining the section of sheet pile as will be discussed later.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Types of Sheet Piles</span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><br />There are two main types of sheet piles:<br />1. Cantilever Sheet Piles.<br />2. Anchored Sheet piles.</span></div>
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abdallah alserhyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08911916150363744452noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3352181172827738762.post-31958208763018895232015-11-17T00:32:00.002-08:002015-11-17T00:36:54.255-08:00Settlement and Allowable Bearing Capacity in the soil under shallow foundation "article" <div dir="rtl" style="text-align: right;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-size: large;">the allowable settlement of shallow foundations may control the allowable bearing capacity.The </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">allowable settlement itself may be controlled by local building codes.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">For example; the maximum allowable settlement for mat foundation is 50 mm, and 25 mm for isolated footing.These foundations should be designed for these limiting values of settlement (by calculating the allowable bearing capacity from the allowable settlement). thus, the allowable bearing capacity is the smaller of the following two conditions:</span></div>
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The settlement of a foundation can be divided into two major </h3>
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<span style="font-size: large;">a) Immediate or elastic settlement (Se):</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Elastic or immediate settlement occurs during or immediately after the application of the load<br /> (construction of structure) without change in the moisture content of the soil.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">b) Consolidation Settlement (Sc) :</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Consolidation settlement occur over time, such that pore water is extruded from the void spaces of saturated clayey soil submerged in water.Consolidation settlement comprises two phases: Primary and secondary. To calculate foundation settlement (both elastic and consolidation), it is required to estimate the vertical stress increase in the soil mass due to the </span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;">net load applied on the foundation .</span> </span><br />
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abdallah alserhyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08911916150363744452noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3352181172827738762.post-87740510929742873132015-11-17T00:01:00.002-08:002015-11-17T00:10:31.683-08:00Determining the number of soil boring in the construction site " Article"<div dir="rtl" style="text-align: right;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-gGaYMWCnE74/Vkres3IP3RI/AAAAAAAAAB4/OE3BdQoCjdI/s1600/wewe.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Determining the number of soil boring in the construction site " border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-gGaYMWCnE74/Vkres3IP3RI/AAAAAAAAAB4/OE3BdQoCjdI/s1600/wewe.PNG" title="Determining the number of soil boring in the construction site " /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">There is no hard-and-fast rule exists for determining the number of borings are to be advanced. For most buildings, at least one boring at each corner and one at the center should provide astart. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Spacing can be increased or decreased, depending on the condition of the subsoil. If various soil strata are more or less uniform and predictable, fewer boreholes are needed than in nonhomogeneous soil strata.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">The following table gives some guidelines for borehole spacing between for different types of structures:</span></div>
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abdallah alserhyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08911916150363744452noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3352181172827738762.post-89152743096108690432015-11-11T23:29:00.001-08:002015-11-11T23:41:35.273-08:00Procedures for Sampling Soil "Article"<div dir="rtl" style="text-align: right;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-RRwUHmgzQRw/VkQ_Y5u4xkI/AAAAAAAAABY/6hGbGrQdG0Y/s1600/%255B%2527plk%252Cl%253B.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><img alt="Procedures for Sampling Soil "Article"" border="0" height="222" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-RRwUHmgzQRw/VkQ_Y5u4xkI/AAAAAAAAABY/6hGbGrQdG0Y/s400/%255B%2527plk%252Cl%253B.PNG" title="Procedures for Sampling Soil "Article"" width="400" /></span></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">There are two types of samples:</span></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">A- <span style="font-size: 15pt;"><b>Disturbed Samples: </b></span></span></h3>
<span style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 15pt;"><span style="font-size: 15pt;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">These types of samples are disturbed but representative, and may be used for the following types of laboratory soil tests :</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 15pt;"><span style="font-size: 15pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">1- Grain size analysis.</span><br /><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">2- Determination of liquid and plastic limits.</span><br /><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">3- Specific gravity of soil solids.</span><br /><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">4- Determination of organic content.</span><br /><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">5-Classification of soil.</span><br /><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">6-But disturbed soil samples cannot be used for consolidation, hydraulic </span><span style="font-size: 18.6667px;">conductivity, or shear tests, because these tests must be performed on </span><span style="font-size: 18.6667px;">the same soil of the field without any disturbance (to be </span><span style="font-size: 18.6667px;">representative)</span><br style="font-size: 18.6667px;" /><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">The major equipment used to obtain disturbed sample is (Split Spoon) </span><span style="font-size: 18.6667px;">which is a steel tube has inner diameter of 34.93 mm and outer diameter </span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">of 50.8mm.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 15pt;"><span style="font-size: 15pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 15pt;"><span style="font-size: 15pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">B- <b>Undisturbed Samples: </b></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></h3>
<span style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 15pt;"><span style="font-size: 15pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "wingdings";">These types of samples are used for the </span><span style="font-family: "wingdings";">following types of laboratory soil tests:</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 15pt;"><span style="font-size: 15pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;"><br style="font-family: Wingdings;" /><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "wingdings";">1- Consolidation test.<br />2-Hydraulic Conductivity test.<br />3- Shear Strength tests.<br /><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">These samples are more complex and expensive, and it’s suitable </span></span><span style="font-family: "wingdings";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";"><span style="font-family: "wingdings";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">for </span></span><b style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">clay</b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">, however in </span><b style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">sand </b><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">is very difficult to obtain undisturbed samples. </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "wingdings";"><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">The major equipment used to obtain undisturbed sample is (Thin-Walled </span></span><span style="font-family: "times new roman";">Tube).</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 15pt;"><span style="font-size: 15pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "wingdings";"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><b style="font-family: wingdings;">Degree of Disturbance</b></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 15pt;"><span style="font-size: 15pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">If we want to obtain a soil sample from any site, the degree of di<br />for a soil sample is usually expressed as</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-FZHuIs79tuk/VkQ94AlELWI/AAAAAAAAABQ/RFBBowcEPOs/s1600/554.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"><img border="0" height="79" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-FZHuIs79tuk/VkQ94AlELWI/AAAAAAAAABQ/RFBBowcEPOs/s320/554.PNG" width="320" /></span></a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 15pt;"><span style="font-size: 15pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;"></span></span></span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 15pt;"><span style="font-size: 15pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-family: "cambria math";"><br /><span style="font-size: large;">AR = area ratio (ratio of disturbed area to total area of soil)</span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><br style="orphans: 2; text-align: -webkit-auto; widows: 2;" /><span style="font-family: "cambria math";">Do = outside diameter of the sampling tube.<br /><span style="font-size: 14pt;">i</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "cambria math";">D</span><span style="font-family: "cambria math";">= inside diameter of the sampling tube.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "wingdings"; font-size: 15pt;"><span style="font-size: 15pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="font-family: "cambria math";"><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">If (AR) ≤ 10% → the sample is (UNDISTURBED)<br />If (AR) > 10% → the sample is (DISTURBED)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></div>
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abdallah alserhyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08911916150363744452noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3352181172827738762.post-83556741001908843212015-11-01T03:38:00.001-08:002015-11-02T13:41:20.133-08:00Compressive Test For Paste Cement Cubes 50mm With Different w/c Ratio "Report"<div dir="rtl" style="text-align: right;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-size: large;"><u>INTRODUCTION</u></span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: large;">This test method coves determination of the compressive strength of cement mortars , using 2 in (50 mm ) cube specimens .</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> <u>APPARATUS</u></span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: large;">In this test we will use equipment</span> <span style="font-size: large;">as follow :</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">1) weights or weighing device .</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">2) glass graduate .</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">3) specimens molds : thre cubes of (50 mm) side .</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">4) mixer ( electrically driven mechanical mixer of the type equiped with paddle and mixing bowl ) .</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">5) testing machine .</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">6) tamper and trowel .</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> And the following pictures shows this apparatus </span></div>
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-mSRPJE-Dgg8/VjXx8daS3EI/AAAAAAAAAAM/fNp8danZpbk/s1600/Capture111.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Compressive Strength Test For Paste Cement Cubes 50mm With Different w/c Ratio "Report"" border="0" height="220" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-mSRPJE-Dgg8/VjXx8daS3EI/AAAAAAAAAAM/fNp8danZpbk/s400/Capture111.PNG" title="Compressive Strength Test For Paste Cement Cubes 50mm With Different w/c Ratio "Report"" width="400" /></a></div>
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-FIpremSX92k/VjXx-0DYfDI/AAAAAAAAAAY/wLYGsHXTqdM/s1600/wsdwd.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Compressive Strength Test For Paste Cement Cubes 50mm With Different w/c Ratio "Report"" border="0" height="260" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-FIpremSX92k/VjXx-0DYfDI/AAAAAAAAAAY/wLYGsHXTqdM/s400/wsdwd.PNG" title="Compressive Strength Test For Paste Cement Cubes 50mm With Different w/c Ratio "Report"" width="400" /></a></div>
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-6AOd3Fu5HKA/VjXx-lqubhI/AAAAAAAAAAc/ZBpTTd4agvw/s1600/Capture.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Compressive Strength Test For Paste Cement Cubes 50mm With Different w/c Ratio "Report"" border="0" height="386" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-6AOd3Fu5HKA/VjXx-lqubhI/AAAAAAAAAAc/ZBpTTd4agvw/s400/Capture.PNG" title="Compressive Strength Test For Paste Cement Cubes 50mm With Different w/c Ratio "Report"" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><u>MATERIALS</u></span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: large;">graded standard sand should be used ( c778 ) with cement in the proportion ( 1 cement : 2.75 sand ) by weight .</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">in this report we used water-cement ratio as follow :</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> 0.45 , 0.5 , 0,55 , and 0,6 w/c ratio . </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><u>PROCEDURES</u></span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> </span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> A- preparation of morter </span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: large;">1) weight (300)gm of cement and prepare the corresponding weights of standard sand and water.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">2) place the dry paddle and the dry bowl in the mixing position in the mixer. then introduce the materials for abatch into the bowl and mix in the following manner .</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">3) place all the mixing water in the bowl and add the cement to the water , then start the mixer and mix at the low speed (140+or- 5 r/min ) for 30 second. add the entire quantity of sand slowly over a(30 s) period , while mixing as slow speed.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">stop the mixer , change to medium speed (285+10 r/min) and mix for 30 second . stop the mixer and let the morter stand for 1.5 min . during the first (15 s) . of this interval , quickly scrape down into the batch any morter that may have collected on the side of the bowl .and finish by mixing for (1 min ) at medium speed .</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">B-molding test specimens</span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: large;">1) thinly cover the interior faces of the specimen molds with oil .</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">2) start molding the specimens within atotal time of not more than 2.5 min after completion of mixing.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">3) place alayer of morter about 25mm (half the depth of the mold ) in all the cube specimens .</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">4) tamp the morter in each cube 32 times (4*8) , about 4 rounds < each round to be at right angles to the other .</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-ijAnsrca9Go/VjX4LIvSrdI/AAAAAAAAAAs/T_WtTS7UGEM/s1600/dfdfsdfsd.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Compressive Strength Test For Paste Cement Cubes 50mm With Different w/c Ratio "Report"" border="0" height="161" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-ijAnsrca9Go/VjX4LIvSrdI/AAAAAAAAAAs/T_WtTS7UGEM/s400/dfdfsdfsd.PNG" title="Compressive Strength Test For Paste Cement Cubes 50mm With Different w/c Ratio "Report"" width="400" /></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">5) the 4 rounds of tamping shall be completed in one cube before going to the next .</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">6) when the tamping of the first layer in all cubes is comleted , fill the molds with the remaining morter and tamp as specified for the first layer .</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">7) cut off the morter to a plans surface with astraight edge.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">8) keep the molds in a moist room for 20-24 houres then open them and keep the specimens in a water basin for aweek .</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">c- testing specimens</span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: large;">1) after 7 days ( +3 hours), take the specimens out of the basin , dry them with a clean cloth , put them , one after the other in the testing machine.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">2) the cubes must be put on one side , using extra steel plates up and down the specimen.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">3) start loading in speed of 1.4 kn/sec or (350 kg/cm^2 ) in a- minute .</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">4)when failure , record load and the compressive strength .</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><u>CALCULATIONS</u></span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> </span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: large;">now we will determine the compressive of every sample different w/c ration .</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">-The
first sample with 0.45 w/c ratio
. <o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 621px;">
<tbody>
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<td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 60.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 81.1pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">NO.CUBE<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 60.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 72.45pt;" valign="top" width="97"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">LOAD
(KN)<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 60.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 134.9pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">COMP.STRENGTH<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"> (MPa)_____<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 60.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 125.85pt;" valign="top" width="168"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">STRESS<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"> WITH (kg/cm^2)<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 60.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 51.8pt;" valign="top" width="69"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , serif; font-size: 14pt;"><u>Weight<o:p></o:p></u></span></b></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">(g)<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 43.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 43.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 81.1pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">1<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 43.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 72.45pt;" valign="top" width="97"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">51.7<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 43.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 134.9pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">20.68<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 43.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 125.85pt;" valign="top" width="168"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">210.805<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 43.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 51.8pt;" valign="top" width="69"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">283<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 62.15pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 62.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 81.1pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">2<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 62.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 72.45pt;" valign="top" width="97"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">50.6<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: center; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 62.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 134.9pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">20.24<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 62.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 125.85pt;" valign="top" width="168"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">206.32<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 62.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 51.8pt;" valign="top" width="69"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">281<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">- Average comp -stress = 210.805+206.32 /2 = <b><u>208.563</u></b><u> </u> kg/cm^2
for 0.45 w/c .<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;">
<br />
<span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , serif; font-size: 14pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , serif; font-size: 14pt; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: "times new roman"; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span><span dir="LTR" style="text-indent: -18pt;"></span><b style="text-indent: -18pt;"><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">The second sample
with 0.55 w/c ratio :-</span></u></b></div>
<h3 dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;">
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<tbody>
<tr style="height: 60.3pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 60.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 81.1pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">NO.CUBE<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 60.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 72.45pt;" valign="top" width="97"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">LOAD
(KN)<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 60.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 134.9pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">COMP.STRENGTH<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"> (MPa)_____<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 60.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 125.85pt;" valign="top" width="168"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">STRESS<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"> WITH (kg/cm^2)<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 60.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 37.65pt;" valign="top" width="50"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">Weight<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">(g)<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 43.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 43.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 81.1pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">1<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 43.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 72.45pt;" valign="top" width="97"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">54.262<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 43.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 134.9pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">21.505<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 43.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 125.85pt;" valign="top" width="168"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">221.25<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 43.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 37.65pt;" valign="top" width="50"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">280<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 62.15pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 62.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 81.1pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">2<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 62.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 72.45pt;" valign="top" width="97"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">49.907<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 62.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 134.9pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">19.963<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 62.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 125.85pt;" valign="top" width="168"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">203.49<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 62.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 37.65pt;" valign="top" width="50"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">275<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">Average comp-</span></u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">
stress = 221.25+203.49 / 2
= <b><u>212.37</u></b>
kg/cm^2 , for 0.5 w/c<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</h3>
<h3 dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;">
</h3>
<h3 dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"><br /></span></u>
<u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"><br /></span></u>
<u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">-<b>The
third sample with 0.55 w/c ratio :-<o:p></o:p></b></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 603px;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 60.3pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 60.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 81.1pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">NO.CUBE<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 60.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 72.45pt;" valign="top" width="97"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">LOAD
(KN)<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 60.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 134.9pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">COMP.STRENGTH<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"> (MPa)_____<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 60.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 125.85pt;" valign="top" width="168"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">STRESS<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"> WITH (kg/cm^2)<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 60.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 37.65pt;" valign="top" width="50"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">Weight<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">(g)<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 43.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 43.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 81.1pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">1<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 43.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 72.45pt;" valign="top" width="97"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">55.467<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 43.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 134.9pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">22.187<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 43.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 125.85pt;" valign="top" width="168"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">226.165<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 43.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 37.65pt;" valign="top" width="50"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">280<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 62.15pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 62.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 81.1pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">2<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 62.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 72.45pt;" valign="top" width="97"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">37.196<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 62.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 134.9pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">14.879<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 62.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 125.85pt;" valign="top" width="168"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">151.665<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 62.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 37.65pt;" valign="top" width="50"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">275<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , serif; font-size: 14pt;">- A</span><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">verage comp-stress = 226.165+151.665 /2
= <b><u>188.915</u></b> kg/ cm^2
, for 0.55 w/c ratio<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="direction: ltr; margin: 0cm 0cm 0.0001pt 36pt; text-indent: -18pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"><br /></span></u></b>
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">The forth sample with 0.6 w/c ratio :-<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoTableGrid" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 603px;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 60.3pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 60.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 81.1pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">NO.CUBE<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 60.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 72.45pt;" valign="top" width="97"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">LOAD
(KN)<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 60.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 134.9pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<br /></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">COMP.STRENGTH<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"> (MPa)_____<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">STRESS<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"> WITH (kg/cm^2)<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 60.3pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 37.65pt;" valign="top" width="50"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">Weight<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">(g)<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
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<tr style="height: 43.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 43.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 81.1pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">1<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 43.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 72.45pt;" valign="top" width="97"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">10<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 43.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 134.9pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">4<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 43.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 125.85pt;" valign="top" width="168"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">40.774<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 43.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 37.65pt;" valign="top" width="50"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">285<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 62.15pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 62.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 81.1pt;" valign="top" width="108"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">2<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 62.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 72.45pt;" valign="top" width="97"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">34.486<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 62.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 134.9pt;" valign="top" width="180"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">13.794<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 62.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 125.85pt;" valign="top" width="168"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">140.615<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 62.15pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 37.65pt;" valign="top" width="50"><div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">275<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="direction: ltr; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; unicode-bidi: embed;">
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<u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;">- Ave .comp-
stress= </span></u><span style="font-family: "timesnewromanpsmt" , "serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"> 40.774+140.615
/ 2 = <b><u>90.6945</u></b> kg/cm^2
, for 0.6 w/c ratio.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: large;">and this picture from excel ratio average comp-stress and w/c ratio .</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-A_6YoB5lCG8/VjYfr5YErSI/AAAAAAAAAA8/83IKQLqSF2k/s1600/DEFREER.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Compressive Strength Test For Paste Cement Cubes 50mm With Different w/c Ratio "Report"" border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-A_6YoB5lCG8/VjYfr5YErSI/AAAAAAAAAA8/83IKQLqSF2k/s1600/DEFREER.PNG" title="Compressive Strength Test For Paste Cement Cubes 50mm With Different w/c Ratio "Report"" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><u>COMMENTS</u></span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">1) The comp-strength of sample 0.5 w/c is bigger than strength of 0.45 w/c</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">2) the value of comp-strength 0.6 w/c is the least of every samples strength.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">3) the cement used is portland cement .</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">4) when increase in w/c ratio m the comp-strength decrease.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">5) two sample for one w/c ratio is not enough to judge comp-strength.</span></div>
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abdallah alserhyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08911916150363744452noreply@blogger.com0